Educational Research

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Educational research is essential for the development and change of the learning process. As society and its needs continually change, so too do the needs of educators and students. Improvements are required to keep up with these vital changes. Qualitative research plays an important role in recognising and rendering the necessary amendments. In particular, two forms of this research can be analysed in terms of the contribution they make to the educational process. They are Action Research and Ethnography. To fully understand these approaches, each one must firstly be defined and can then be reviewed by examining the assumptions that are made when each type of research takes place. These are assumptions about the process and outcomes of the approaches. Lastly, each type will be related to an authentic learning situation to understand the contributions that can be made to improve education.


How can action research be defined?


Firstly, to unravel the principles behind action research, Cohen and Manion (14) have collated a series of definitions to assist in the conception of the approach. It can be defined as the link between theory and practice. It is not just performing the research but attempting to use the results to make a significant contribution and change to education as a whole. Hopkins (in Cohen et.al. 14) suggests that it attempts to understand, improve and reform practice by contributing to educational theories. By doing this, changes to practice should occur by influencing other researchers and educators. It not only attempts to improve classroom practice but also influence society on a wider scale as Kemmis (in Cohen et.al. 14) suggests. The role of the researcher does not just cease when the data is collected and recorded, it continues as the process of reviewing, evaluating and improving practice also persists according to Bell (187). The research has, or should have, a lasting effect on education and society, assisting those who attempt to research similar areas or problems in the future.


Teachers tend to strive to improve instructional strategies and methods naturally by reflecting on lessons and evaluating the outcomes. Kemmis and McTaggart (in Cohen et.al. 14) believe that action research is similar in process but is more thought out, structured and in depth that what is done at this level. This evaluation allows problem areas in education to be focused upon and consequently changed, hopefully improving the situation. Grundy (in Cohen et.al. 14, p.1) supports this by stating that it is ‘designed to render an existing situation more efficient and effective.’ The evaluation process allows for a constant improvement to education and its theories by always seeking to change those aspects needing reflection. No process, teaching method or strategy is flawless. Improvements will continually need to be made as society and values change.


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Cohen et.al. (14) characterise action research in a number of ways. They believe that it seeks to improve the quality of human actions, contribute to a theory of education, understand the process of change in society as it reflects on education, and be collaborative. The latter refers to the way in which the research takes place. It involves a number of researchers working together with each party having equal rights of participation, decisions, shared responsibility and ownership. These characteristics assist in the development of an understanding about action research and help to illustrate the assumptions that are always made when this type of research approach is chosen.


What assumptions are made about action research?


When considering these characteristics of action research, one can draw assumptions as to how this research method can be best utilised in education. These are assumptions upon which the approach is based. They regard what is believed about the way the research takes place, the environment in which it occurs and the outcomes and the effects it has in the context of learning. As well as the assumptions previously mentioned, some others are that action research will increase feelings of self worth and confidence of teachers, improve classroom awareness and broaden their views on education according to Noffke and Zeichner (in Cohen et. al.14). Although these assumptions are made to this approach overall, it can be noticed that these principles or characteristics are not always evident and are subject to change depending of the situation in which the research takes place. All research outcomes are different and many are unintended so when examining these assumptions of action research it should be remembered that they are not always existent in the results.


An assumption behind action research is that it seeks to improve the quality of human actions on a large scale. For example, by sharing the results of a study about how students work in a group environment, it will assist teachers who are considering the use of this type of approach in their classroom. The teacher can look at the research and make appropriate changes to improve this setting thus giving the students the best opportunity to achieve their potential. Through a wider view, this example can also attempt to relate the group work in the classroom to a group setting in the work place. The students who have gained from the teacher’s exploration of research in this area, will be able to relate the properties of group work to the work place gaining their full potential out of this situation also. The results will have an effect in some way on not only the researchers and participants but on education as a whole according to Cohen et.al. (14). They believe that by changing educational approaches, improvements are made with all involved learning from the consequences of change. Ultimately, action research will have effects on the role, skills and attitudes of teachers that, in turn, affect the students. Changes to the practices and theories of education will also be made, along with the ‘social relationships and forms of organization which characterise and constrain our practices’ (Cohen et.al. 14, p.0).


As briefly discussed, an assumption is made that the process of action research is collaborative and systematic in collecting evidence. This approach supposes that there is more than one researcher and more than likely a team of researchers working together on different aspects of the study. It is intended that the views and perceptions of all involved are taken into account and will contribute to understanding the situation (Winter in Cohen et.al. 14). It is a group project that should include each member equally in the process of planning, procedure and research recognising the efforts and contributions made by all. Cohen et. al. (14) refer to Lewin (148) who believes that collaboration in action research is a commitment to group decision-making and should be a group activity, not an individualistic effort. This is not always the way that action research takes place.


When looking at a study undertaken by Oliver and Omari (001), it can be noticed that a team of lecturers worked together to research collaborative learning in a web-based environment. Within this study, the results concluded that while a collaborative setting was appreciated it was hard to work in a group, as the work was not shared evenly. When looking at action research that may be conducted by those lacking experience, there may be problems with collaboration. This may be due to personality where one person conducts most of the work and contributes more than others, or due to time whereby some researchers may not be able to offer as much time and effort to the study as others. In light of this, it may be summated that successful collaboration may not always occur in action research as it is intended.


How can action research be used in my work place?


As an educator I am able to offer some suggestions as to how action research can be used in my workplace, a school or classroom, to attempt to link theory with the practice. There are a number of uses for action research in education and more comprehensively in the classroom. It can be used to recognise certain behaviours, improve the learning environment, or look at perceptions and attitudes of teachers or students thus attempting to make a contribution to education within the school, district or society as a whole. One area in particular that can be considered in light of action research is achievement in the Higher School Certificate.


This research could help to improve scores and attitudes of the students and teachers at my particular school or help other schools that would consider this research. On a wider scale, this research could assist in improving the education of these students by assisting them, giving a better chance in the real world, improving senior education as a whole whereby the community and society will benefit. By using action research to explore this problem, research and practice can be linked. The overall scores at Oak Flats High School are relatively low for year twelve students. If a group of teachers were to study the reasons and attitudes behind this, changes could be made to improve the following years. Not only this but other schools could also benefit from the results of the study and use them to make improvements to their own implementations of the curriculum. Through exploration of the problems, the research team could discover what it is that is affecting the scores through observations and surveys and attempt to collaborate all sources of data. Teachers would need to evaluate and reflect on teaching strategies and make a significant contribution to the lives of the students. It would be important for the teachers to keep in mind the constant change in society and its affect on education. By trying to improve these scores teachers and researchers are helping students have better chance in real world, improving human quality.


How can ethnography be defined?


Ethnography is another form of qualitative research that looks closely at the actions of people within an environment. It is ‘the art and science of describing a group or culture.’ (Fetterman, 18, p.1) By studying either a small group or a large population, one is able to understand more about a particular group of people or culture. Brewer (000) describes ethnography as a style of research that studies the activities of people and seeks to unravel the meaning behind why they act as they do in a given setting.


Ethnography is the study of people in naturally occurring


settings or ‘fields’ by means of methods which


capture their social meanings and ordinary activities,


involving the researcher participating directly in the setting,


if not also the activities, in order to collect data in a


systematic manner but without meaning being


imposed on them externally. (Brewer, 000, p.10)


To completely understand the environment in which the research is taking place, the researcher must share this setting and experiences with the participants over a long period of time. It depends heavily on the observations of the researcher in the study and involves an intimate familiarity with the social setting, working closely with the participants according to Brewer (000). It is the participants who are the experts and it is their meanings and interpretations that count. The researchers must learn their customs and try to get inside their minds to fully understand the reasons behind the actions without disturbing the natural process (Woods, 186).


In ethnography, the researcher begins with a certain area of interest or problem that they wish to further understand. Burns (14) believes that it is more about developing an underlying theory about why natural behaviours occur in the particular setting, with less emphasis on testing a theory. The most important features are the questions and problems that are asked. ‘Often the primary research goal is to discover those questions which will emerge along with the concepts and theoretical framework as the study proceeds.’ (Burns, 14, p.6)


According to Hammersley (1), ethnographic research is comprised of a number of features that categorise it as the qualitative kind. The behaviour of the participants is studied in the everyday contexts in which it naturally occurs. Multiple techniques are used to collect the information but observation is the primary means. The data is collected over a period of time, when it suits the participants or when it is naturally ready. Multiple perspectives are considered so that a more accurate interpretation of the group and setting is made. A single setting is usually focused on to concentrate more closely on the small aspects and how they contribute to the whole (Brewer, 000). Although these are characteristics of ethnography, they can also been seen as assumptions that are made about how the research will take place and may not always be followed by the researcher.


What assumptions are made about ethnography?


When ethnographic research takes place, there are assumptions made as to how it should be performed to produce a valid and reliable study. These include the use of multiple perspectives and multiple techniques to show an understanding of human differences, objectivity of the researcher so that biased assumptions are not made, a naturalistic setting so that the actions are true indications of what normally occurs, and that holism is considered within the study.


Firstly, there is an assumption that multiple perspectives will be considered when observing and interviewing the participants. The researcher is expected to study a range of people, not just one or two, to fully understand the actions and behaviours within the environment. Everyone has a different account of what is occurring as well as previous experiences that will affect the feelings, actions and behaviours. The focus should be on how different people define an event through their actions and perceptions according to Burns (14). It is important that the researcher does not assume knowledge of the study by drawing on the information offered from one person in the group.


It is also assumed that a range of techniques for gathering the information of the study will be used. Burns (14, p.) states that ‘’fieldwork’, is not a homogenous method, but involves a variety of techniques of data collection.’ Although observation is the principle form, there are several ways in which it can occur. This depends on the degree of participation the researcher feels necessary to collate as much useful data as possible. ‘The implicit assumption behind observation is that behaviour is purposive and expressive of deeper values and beliefs.’ (Burns,14, p.411) Observation is advantageous as it allows behaviours and actions to be recorded as they are occurring, allowing for a more accurate description of what has happened. Also interviews, questionnaires and surveys may be used to back up the assumptions drawn from observations. For example, the researcher may observe that a student enjoys reading but an interview may reveal otherwise. So, to get the best results and most accurate information from the study, it is assumed that the researcher will use a variety of data collection techniques.





Another assumption to be made about ethnography is objectivity, i.e. when a researcher performs a study he or she will be as objective as possible about what is observed and what is discovered. In qualitative research there are problems with prejudices and attitudes of the researcher getting in the way. According to Fetterman (18), the ability to keep an open mind about the participants and context in which they are working is a characteristic of ethnographic researchers. This is an assumption that all researchers of this kind are able to do this. Objectivity is a hard trait to possess when working in a situation that may not be familiar to the background of the researcher. For example, the researcher may have a different religious background to the group being studied and may find it hard to relate or understand the reasoning behind the actions and behaviours observed. Fetterman (18, p.1) recognises that researchers will begin with ‘biases and preconceived notions about how people behave and what they think,’ but believes that they must try and rid themselves of any presumptions they may have before entering the study. This is so the results are not recorded in a subjective way and also so that the participants are not swayed by the views of the researcher.


Yet another assumption about ethnography is that it studies only what is naturally occurring behaviour. The reasoning behind this type of research is that ‘the things people say and do depend on the social context in which they find themselves.’ (Burns, 14, p.7) Firstly, the researcher has to be accepted to a certain degree by participants so that they will go about behaving naturally. If he or she is not accepted, accurate accounts of usual happenings will not be able to occur according to Bell (187). The accounts must be accurate to enable the researcher to make comparisons about behaviour patterns occurring in this particular setting with other similar settings, i.e. transferability. This is why ethnographic research is performed over a prolonged period of time so that the participants can become familiar with the researcher, so much so that they forget he or she is present.


Lastly, there is an assumption that the study will consider the context of the situation in light of the big picture. Burns (14) believes that people act differently depending on what is happening in the bigger picture. The actions of students in the classroom will depend not only on what is happening within the home but also within the country in which they live and to a larger extent, the world. For example, students whose parents are going through divorce will display different behaviours and actions to others at that particular moment. Also, students who are affected by war will have different values and attitudes to those who aren’t. It is assumed that ethnographic researchers will take the larger context into account when making observations and theorisations. Burns (14, p.4) states that ‘human behaviour always occurs within a context. A classroom never stands in isolation from larger cultural and social landscapes’. Holism and other assumptions are not always considered in all forms of ethnographic research but should be, to produce a more valid and reliable study that can be transferred and generalised.


How can ethnography be used in my work place?


Ethnography can be used to gain a better understanding of many situations in the classroom. In particular, I would find it useful for examining the attitudes and behaviours of students to casual teachers. Through non-participant observation the researcher would be able to observe a particular class over a period of time. The problem or area of interest relates to the way casual teachers are treated by students. They have the job of coming in on a day-to-day basis and keeping up with the education of students. If I were to research this, I would have the pre-conceived notion that casual teachers are not treated very well or seriously for that matter because I have experienced this myself. It would be hard not to take this bias into the study.


The researcher would have to make the decision as to whether one casual teacher would be observed with the class or a series of teachers. Observations could be made as to how different students reacted to the teacher, how the teacher dealt with problems and how much work was achieved over a period of time. Students and teachers could be surveyed about perceptions of casual teachers, what makes a good teacher and if the casual teachers in the study have these characteristics. Interviews could also reveal why or if they are treated differently and how can this be overcome. The researcher would have to make sure that they did not interfere in the setting and that the whole context of the situation was taken into account. For example, the students’ permanent teacher may have left because of illness and the students may be worried about this. This could affect their actions and the study. By performing an ethnographic study, the researcher is able to gain a deeper understanding of why certain actions occur and how situations can be improved.


BIBLIOGRAPHY


Bell, J. (187) Doing your research project A Guide for First-Time Researchers in Education and Social Science. Philadelphia Open University Press.





Brewer,J.D. (000) Ethnography. Buckingham Open University Press.


Burns, R.B. (14) Introduction to research methods (rd Ed.) Melbourne Longman Chesire.


Cohen,L. & Manion,L. (Eds.), (14) Research methods in education (4th Ed.) London Routledge.


Fetterman,D.M. (18) Ethnography Step by Step. (nd Ed.) Thousand Oaks Sage Publications.


Hammersley,M. (1) What’s wrong with ethnography? Methodological explorations. London Routledge.


Oliver,R. & Omari,A. (001) Student responses to collaborating and learning in a web-based environment. In Ed. Lewis,R. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 171. Mt. Lawley Blackwell Science Ltd. Pp.4-47.


Woods,P. (186) Inside Schools Ethnography in educational research. London Routledge & Kegan Paul.


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